Antibacterial activity and phytochemical screening of traditional medicinal plants most preferred for treating infectious diseases in Habru District, North Wollo Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia.

Ethiopia's healthcare system relies on traditional medicinal practices that use medicinal plants to treat human and livestock ailments. However, the lack of empirical validation regarding the efficacy of these treatments against specific infectious diseases necessitates rigorous scientific investigations. The objective of this study was to investigate the antibacterial activity and phytochemical screening on five selected medicinal plant species, namely Solanum somalense Franchet., Verbascum sinaiticum Benth., Rumex nervosus Vahl, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal and Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. The plants were first identified jointly with local informants and later considering mainly their high informant consensus and fidelity level values for their efficacy in treating infectious diseases in the area. Ethanol and aqueous extracts were prepared from the plant materials, and their antibacterial activities were evaluated against standard bacterial strains, representing both gram-positive and gram-negative types. To assess the antibacterial activity of the extracts, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using the broth dilution method. Additionally, phytochemical screening was performed using standard qualitative tests to identify various secondary metabolites. The results indicated antibacterial efficacy in the ethanol extracts of S. somalense, W. somnifera, and C. aurea against particular bacterial strains (S. somalense against S. agalactiae with MIC of 1.5 mg/mL; W. somnifera against S. aureus and E. coli, with MIC of 2 mg/mL; C. aurea against E. coli and K. pneumoniae, with MICs of 3 mg/mL and 3.5 mg/mL, respectively). The results of the phytochemical screening indicated the presence of steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and terpenoids. The selected medicinal plants demonstrated promising antibacterial activity against certain bacterial strains. The current findings support the long-standing claim of the traditional medical system of the study area for their continued use of these plants in their treatment of infectious diseases. Further investigation is required to isolate the responsible active compounds and characterize the constituents and description of their antibacterial effect for possible use in areas where these infectious diseases are major health problems.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and their utilization by indigenous and local communities of Dugda District, Central Rift Valley, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants have been used by the people of Dugda District in the primary health care system to treat various livestock ailments for generations, particularly, in underserved rural areas. However, these ethnoveterinary practices and medicinal plants are dwindling without proper documentation, due to undergoing socio-cultural and environmental changes. Hence, this study aimed at inventory and analysis of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and the associated indigenous and local knowledge used in the treatment of livestock health problems in Dugda District. METHODS: Data were collected from 378 local inhabitants through semi-structured interviews, 18 focus group discussions with 6 to 8 participants in each couple with participant field observations. Informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity-level (FL) and relative importance value (RI) were used to evaluate the agreement of informants on ethnoveterinary practices, healing potential of medicinal plants and the most multipurpose species. Using standard taxonomic procedures, voucher specimens were collected, identified and deposited at the National Herbarium of Addis Ababa University. RESULTS: In total, 64 medicinal plants of ethnoveterinary uses, belonging to 33 families were reported to treat 37 livestock health problems. Anthrax, inappetence and diarrhoea were said to be the most prevalent veterinary health problems treated by traditional medicinal plants. Family Fabaceae was the most widely reported (7 spp.), followed by Apocynaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae (5 spp. each). Herbs were the dominant life forms (21spp.), followed by shrubs (20 spp.). The most commonly sought plant parts were leaves (55.25%), followed by roots (23.44%). The principal method of preparation was pounding remedial parts (46.85%) and mixing with cold water. The main route of administration was via oral application (72.67%), drenching diseased livestock. Withania somnifera and Kedrostis foetidissima were the most cited medicinal plants with 53 and 43 use reports (URs), respectively. ICF showed that respiratory diseases scored the highest value (0.94), while most of the reported medicinal plants were gastrointestinal agents. RI value analysis revealed that Croton macrostachyus had highest diversity of uses, followed by K. foetidissima and W. somnifera. Ethnoveterinary uses of some medicinal plants such as Phytolacca dodecandra, Calpurnia aurea, Cyphostemma cyphopetalum and Verbascum sinaiticum as prophylaxis against rabies were a new input for ethnoveterinary database. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that the people of the Dugda District are endowed with rich ethnoveterinary knowledge and medicinal plants. However, ethnoveterinary knowledge associated with medicinal plant species significantly differ (P < 0.05) between general and key informants, young and matured age groups and informants' educational level. This infers the impact of mode of ethnoveterinary knowledge transfer, literacy, modern education and globalization on ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plant species. And also most of the medicinal plants are found in wild habitats with nearly no conservation attention. Therefore, it is imperative to implement participatory conservation actions for medicinal plants in collaboration with traditional institutions (Gada system). The disparity of ethnoveterinary knowledge could be also minimized through awareness creation among local communities about the knowledge and its revitalization. Furthermore, medicinal plants, which are widely utilized and multipurpose, should be screened for their phytochemicals, pharmacological and toxicological activities to confirm ethnoveterinary uses and for future development of veterinary pharmaceuticals.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and their utilization by the people of Soro District, Hadiya Zone, southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethnoveterinary studies are important to maintain the sustainability of livestock health and support people's livelihoods through the provision of food, maintaining livestock health, and other biological resources. This study was carried out in Soro District, southern Ethiopia, to identify, document and analyse plant species with ethnoveterinary uses along with the associated indigenous and local knowledge. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Informants were selected using purposive (key informants) and systematic random sampling (general informants) methods. Data on ethnoveterinary plants and their uses were collected through semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, 13 focus group discussions with five to seven members in each and participant observation. Informant consensus factor and fidelity level were computed to identify the most common livestock ailment categories and the best plant species with ethnoveterinary use, respectively. Preference ranking methods were used to identify the potentially effective ethnoveterinary medicinal plants for the most frequently reported livestock ailments. The use diversity of multipurpose plants with ethnoveterinary importance was analysed using the analytical methods of ethnobotany including priority ranking, comparisons and important indices. The T-test statistic was used to compare knowledge differences among different social groups. RESULTS: A total of 132 plant species in 120 genera and 61 families were reported by informants as having ethnoveterinary uses. The plants are said to be used by the local communities in various ways to treat 50 livestock health problems. Higher number of informants (23.77%) cited Momordica foetida for the treatment of 16 livestock ailments. The highest informant consensus value for this species is associated with its use for treating blackleg in cattle; Nicotiana tabacum was cited for the treatment of 15 livestock ailments mainly recommended for the Lumpy Skin Disease/Ailment of bovines; Croton macrostachyus for treatment of 13 livestock ailments including wooden tongue, FMD in bovines; and Gymnanthemum amygdalinum for nine ailments mainly diarrhoea of all livestock types. Achyranthes aspera is claimed to provide the most effective treatment for Aspiration pneumonia (severe coughing in bovines, sheep and goats) alone, while Croton macrostachyus, Ximenia americana, Allium sativum and Juniperus procera were indicated as potential plant species to treat Lumpy Skin Disease in bovines in the order given. The fidelity level analysis showed that Datura stramonium, Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia and Asparagus africanus were potential medicinal plant species to treat the respective ailments of rabies, Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) and evil eye/spirit. Multipurpose plant species including Prunus africanus, Combretum molle and Afrocarpus falcatus have been highly threatened as indicated by direct matrix ranking mainly due to collection of fuel wood, construction materials and making household utensils, and farm implements rather than for other uses. CONCLUSION: Soro District has rich and diversified livestock herbal medicinal resources, and indigenous knowledge of remedy preparations and applications is transmitted through generation lines. This resource faces anthropogenic threats with deforestation being the leading factor. Consequently, ethnoveterinary medicinal plants continue to decline before adequate and proper scientific documentation and testing are made. There is a dire need for planning and implementation of appropriate in situ and ex situ conservation strategies and to strive towards ensuring the survival and sustainable utilization of such important plant resources of Soro District. This must be supported by further documentation of the associated indigenous knowledge and pharmacological testing of the key promising species including Balanites aegyptiaca (novel species/NS to treat specific ailment), Brugmansia suaveolens (novel species/NS reported first to treat Livestock ailments/LsAs), Euclea divinorum (NS to treat specific ailments), Grevillea robusta (NS), Hagenia abyssinica (NS for the reported specific ailment), Pentanema confertiflorum (NS), Juniperus procera (NS), Maesa lanceolata (NS), Millettia ferruginea (NS for reported specific ailments), Schrebera alata/NS, Securidaca longepedunculata, Spiniluma oxyacantha/NS, Vepris nobilis (novel species reported first to treat LsAs), Zanthoxylum asiaticum /NS and Ximenia americana (NS for specific ailments). This ethnoveterinary study attempted to fill part of the gaps concerning the prevalent livestock health problems and the associated indigenous and local knowledge in the area.

Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants used by the local people in Habru District, North Wollo Zone, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethiopia is a country located in the Horn of Africa, which combines richness in plant resources and cultures of human plant use. The people of Habru District of North Wollo Zone (Amhara Region, Ethiopia) have a long history of use of plant resources for various purposes including in traditional herbal remedy preparation and use. However, the district has not been adequately studied for its ethnobotanical resources and the associated knowledge. This study focused on human medicinal plants and their traditional uses in Habru District. The objective of the study was to document and analyze the plant species used by the local communities to treat human ailments along with the associated traditional knowledge and practices. METHODOLOGY: The study was carried out in Habru District from June 2021 to December 2022. Ethnobotanical data were collected using semi-structured interviews, guided field walks, 13 focus group discussions (one at the district level and 12 at the kebele/subdistrict level) and market surveys. A total of 388 informants (250 males and 138 females) were selected from all 13 kebeles within Habru District using systematic random sampling, and 42 key informants were purposively selected. Descriptive statistics, preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, informant consensus factor and fidelity level were applied for data analysis. RESULTS: The results provide insights into the medicinal plant diversity within Habru District, where 134 plant species in 110 genera and 54 families were documented, including 2 endemics, highlighting the district's significance in biodiversity conservation and healthcare delivery. Disease prevalence analysis showed that gastrointestinal and parasitic ailments (ICF = 0.85), febrile diseases (ICF = 0.84), and culture-related conditions exhibit high informant consensus factors. Remedy preparation involves various plant parts, predominantly leaves (47.3%), followed by roots (22.1%), fruits (7.0%), and seeds (5.8%). Freshly harvested plant parts were frequently used (58.2%), while 24.7% involved both dried and fresh parts. Oral application (47.3%) and topical use (31.8%) are the major routes of remedy administration. The marketability of medicinal plants was evident, with 16.4% of the species reported as marketable, including Terminalia brownii Fresen. Myrtus communis L., Ruta chalepensis L., Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don) Cif., Allium sativum L. and Capsicum annuum L. Multipurpose plants such as Solanum somalense Franchet. (91.3% FL), Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex. Benth. (88.9% FL), and Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. (85.7% FL) exhibited notable healing potentials. CONCLUSION: The current study underscores the intricate relationship between the local community and medicinal plants, emphasizing the importance of biodiversity conservation and health care and acknowledging the dynamic interplay between cultural heritage and ecosystem health. The results contribute to the development of sustainable conservation strategies, healthcare practices and the preservation of traditional knowledge, and highlight the interdependence of human societies and their natural environments. Community-based conservation initiatives with active participation of local communities are desirable for the conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plant species and their habitats. Raising public awareness about the sustainable harvesting and utilization of marketed medicinal plants (e.g., Terminalia brownii Fresen.) that are under threat is also important to ensure their availability for future generations and contribution to socioeconomic development.

The potential of Ethiopian medicinal plants to treat emergent viral diseases.

Ethiopians have deep-rooted traditions of using plants to treat ailments affecting humans and domesticated animals. Approximately 80% of the population continues to rely on traditional medicine, including for the prevention and treatment of viral diseases. Many antiviral plants are available to and widely used by communities in areas where access to conventional healthcare systems is limited. In some cases, pharmacological studies also confirm the potent antiviral properties of Ethiopian plants. Building on traditional knowledge of medicinal plants and testing their antiviral properties may help to expand options to address the global pandemic of COVID-19 including its recently isolated virulent variants and prepare for similar outbreaks in the future. Here, we provide an ethnobotanical and pharmacological inventory of Ethiopian medicinal plants that might contribute to the prevention and treatment of viral diseases. We identified 387 species, about 6% of Ethiopia's known flora, for which records of use by local communities and traditional herbalists have been documented for the treatment of viral diseases. We provide a framework for further investigation and development of this vital resource much anticipated to help combat emergent viral diseases along with existing ones in Ethiopia and elsewhere.

Ethnobotany of wild edible plants in Soro District of Hadiya Zone, southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Despite their paramount importance all over the globe in supporting food security, information about wild edible plants is generally patchy. In this study, we investigated the wild edible plants used by the local people in the Soro District of Hadiya Zone, southern Ethiopia. The main purpose of the study was to document and analyze the indigenous and local knowledge of the people on their abundance, diversity, use and management. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Purposive sampling and systematic random sampling were used to identify informants who can give information about the wild edible plants of the area. Data were collected by interviewing 26 purposively sampled key informants and 128 systematically randomly sampled general informants using semi-structured interviews. Guided observations and 13 focus group discussions (FGDs) consisting of 5-12 participants/discussants at each FGD session were also undertaken. Statistical analyses (mainly descriptive statistics approaches) and common analytical tools of ethnobotany including informant consensus, informant consensus factor, preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, paired comparison and index of fidelity level were applied to the data sets. RESULTS: A total of 64 wild edible plant species belonging to 52 genera and 39 families were recorded. All of these species are indigenous, 16 are new additions to the database and seven of them, including Urtica simensis and Thymus schimperi, are endemic to Ethiopia. In about 82.81% of the species, the edible plant part is also used in the Ethiopian traditional herbal medicine. It is striking to see that almost all wild edible plants recorded from the study area are nutraceutical plant species, serving multiple roles as food and therapeutic sources for the local people. We recorded five growth habits of 34.38% trees, 32.81% herbs, 25% shrubs, 6.25% climbers, and 1.56% liana. We found the Flacourtiaceae, Solanaceae, and Moraceae to be families that represented more species (4 each), followed by Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Asteraceae, which accounted for 3 species each. Fruits (53.13%) and leaves (31.25%) were consumed in more proportions than other edible parts (15.63%); mostly the ripe, raw fruit is eaten upon simple processing, followed by leaves eaten after boiling, roasting and cooking. CONCLUSION: The frequency and intensity of consumption of these plants varied significantly (P < 0.05) with gender differences, key and general informants, and people's religious backgrounds. We postulate that priority setting for in situ and ex situ conservation of multipurpose wild edible plants in human-inhabited landscapes is essential to warrant sustainable use and conservation of the species as well as the use of new modes of application and valorization.

On-farm diversity, use pattern, and conservation of enset (Ensete ventricosum) genetic resources in southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Enset is an important source of food and is consumed by about 25 million people as a staple or co-staple food crop mainly in southern parts of Ethiopia. Large numbers of enset landraces exist in different administrative zones of Ethiopia with a wide range of altitudes and agroclimatic zones. However, limited information is available on the diversity, distribution, and utilization pattern corresponding to the diverse ethnolinguistic as well as sociocultural communities of the country. Hence, this study was devised to explore and document the richness of farmers' tradition and practice on the diversity and distribution of enset landraces on the farm level and selection pattern for different purposes regarding the production, utilization, and conservation of enset genetic resources. METHODS: The study was conducted in four major enset-growing administrative zones of Ethiopia, namely Hadiya, Kembata-Tembaro, Gurage, and Silte. A total of 240 farm households were surveyed using individual interviews, 18 key informant interviews, 36 focus group discussions with 5 participants, and direct on-farm field observations for data collection. Considering that enset has a rich cultural background and indigenous knowledge, ethnobotanical research approach was applied to data collection and analysis. The Shannon-Weaver, Simpson, Pielou, and Jaccard's similarity indices were used to evaluate the diversity and similarity of the landraces as well as using descriptive statistics in SPSS Ver. 24. Preference in direct matrix ranking was also used to compute and rank the enset landraces most preferred by the people in the context of specific use value in the study area. RESULTS: A total of 282 farmer-named enset landraces have been identified, with a range from 2 to 32 on individual homegardens. The largest number of landraces was found in the Hadiya Zone (86), while the lowest was scored in the Silte Zone (57). The Shannon diversity index (H') ranged from 3.73 (Silte) to 3.96 (Hadiya). Similarly, landraces revealed a very narrow range of variances in Simpson's 1-D diversity index, and it ranged from 0.963 (Silte) to 0.978 (Hadiya). Likewise, the similarity index ranged from 0.24 to 0.73 sharing 16-47 landraces in common. Of the 282 landraces, 210 (74.5%) were recorded in more than one zones, whereas 72 (25.5%) had narrow distribution being restricted to a single zone. CONCLUSIONS: Farmers have established long-term practices and experiences in cultivation, utilization, and conservation of a diverse group of enset landraces to fill their domestic and market purposes in each zone. The variation is likely to be related to agroclimatic differences, ethnicity factors, food cultures, and historical backgrounds. Therefore, to facilitate on-farm conservation as well as sustainable utilization of the enset genetic resources, farmers need to be supported by different stakeholders for all their worth and also in crop improvement programs.

Antioxidant Activity and Anti-Nutritional Factors of Selected Wild Edible Plants Collected from Northeastern Ethiopia.

In Ethiopia, wild edible plants (WEPs) offer a natural food supply for humans to alleviate food insecurity and hunger. Despite the extensive usage of WEPs in Ethiopia, there have been few investigations on their nutritional composition. Our study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant activity and anti-nutritional factors of the most commonly consumed WEPs in Northeastern Ethiopia. The antioxidant parameters including total phenol, total flavonoid, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and Ferric Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay contents and the anti-nutritional parameters including oxalate, phytate and tannin contents of the selected seven WEPs were evaluated using standard food analysis techniques. The total phenol (mg GAE/100 g) and total flavonoid (mg QE/100 g) content of WEPs resulted in ranges of 0.79-17.02 and 2.27-7.12, respectively. The antioxidant activity revealed that leaves of Amaranthus hybridus and Rumex nervosus have the highest DPPH and FRAP value, scavenging 50% of free radicals under 50 µg/mL. Non-food values resulted in the respective ranges of 3.37-11.73 mg/100 g oxalate, 16.31-165 µg/100 g phytate and 1.38-5.49 mg/100 g tannin. The investigation indicates that the antioxidant activity of WEPs under research was higher than common crops, and the non-food values were laid in the safe limit, indicating that these might be used for making more healthy and nutritious foods.

Ethnobotany of traditional medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge in Dawuro Zone of Southwestern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: The study aimed at documenting the indigenous and local knowledge and use of traditional medicinal plants for treating human and livestock ailments in Dawuro Zone of Ethiopia. METHODS: A survey was conducted among traditional healers and native administrators through discussion, interviews, and field observations. The snowball sampling technique was used to select 384 traditional healers in purposefully selected 50 villages spanning seven districts for face-to-face individual interviews. The chi-square test was applied to establish associations between traditional healers' demographics, the distance between the village site and the nearest natural forest and a health center, and SPSS V.20 software was used for the analysis. RESULTS: The traditional healers of the study area reported the use of 274 traditional medicinal plant species belonging to 217 genera and 82 families. Asteraceae (11.68%), Fabaceae (9.49%), and Lamiaceae (9.12%) were the foremost frequently used families. Herb species (54.8%) and leaves (65%) were predominantly sourced from the wild environment. The quantity of medicinal plants used (x2 = 278.368, df = 20, P = 0.000) and years of (experience in) traditional healing using herbs (x2 = 76.358, df = 10, P = 0.000) varied with distance from the natural forests. The service charge for healing had strong positive association (x2 = 24.349, df = 5, P = 0.000) with healer's age (x2 = 309.119, df = 184, P = 0.000) and educational level (x2 = 851.230, df = 598, P = 0.000) with distance of traditional healer's residence from the medical institution. The agricultural activities, urbanization, low or no charge for the healing service, the secrecy and oral transfer of the knowledge, and the demand for medicinal and other multiple purposes species were some of the factors threatening the resource and the associated knowledge as well as the service in the study area. CONCLUSION: There are diversified traditional medicinal plants applied for healthcare of the community and domestic animals of the study area. The source of remedies mostly depends on herbs of natural forests, and the leaf was the most frequently used plant part. Developing conservation intervention and sustainable systems of utilization is needed for multipurpose medicinal plants. Finally, integrating with modern system and formalizing, legalizing, and capacitating the traditional medicine practitioners are needed for access of primary healthcare systems to rural communities.

Effects of essential oils on potato tuber sprouting at room temperature storage in Ethiopia.

This study was conducted with the objective of finding alternative management options for potato tuber sprouting during storage. Essential oils from Croton macrostachyus, Eucalyptus globulus, Allium sativum, Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martini, Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus schimperi were applied in completely randomized design using two quantities (1 and 2 ml) and three frequencies (1, 2, 3). Essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Thymus schimperi showed the lowest percentage of weight loss relative to control tubers for varieties Gudene (8.07%) and Jalene (13.34%), respectively. Essential oils were applied in the form of vapour inside wooden box for 24 h without direct contact with tubers. For both varieties, the potato tuber weight loss found to be minimized using 2 ml essential oils. Similarly, lowest percentage of weight loss at one, two and three applications were found for variety Jalene from Cymbopogon martini, Eucalyptus globulus and Croton macrostachyus, respectively. On the other hand, lowest percentage of weight loss was maintained using Eucalyptus globulus for variety Gudene. The number and length of sprouts did not vary with quantities. Therefore, for variety Gudene, lower number of sprouts relative to control tuber (3 sprouts/tuber) was found on potato tuber treated with essential oils from Cymbopogon martini and Thymus schimperi (2.7 sprouts/tuber) whereas for variety Jalene, lower number of sprouts relative to control tuber (8.7 sprouts/tubers) was found on potato tubers treated with essential oils from Allium sativum and Rosmarinus officinalis (5.7 sprouts/tuber). The length of the longest sprouts on control tubers was 11.7 mm and 20 mm for varieties Gudene and Jalene, respectively. Longest and shortest length of sprout was found on potato tubers treated with Eucalyptus globulus and Rosmarinus officinalis, respectively, for both varieties. Therefore, essential oils used in the current study are promising alternatives to control potato sprouting during storage. However, seedlings of these species and other potential species must be made available to farmers with training on how to make extracts and apply them.

Ethnobotany of an indigenous tree Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. (Fabaceae) in the arid and semi-arid areas of South Omo Zone, southern Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Trees are important components of terrestrial ecosystems; they provide ecological, economic, and cultural services to humans. There is an urgent need for undertaking ethnobotanical investigations and documentation on the indigenous botanical knowledge of the local communities of a given area. This study was conducted to assess and document the categoric ethnobotany of Piliostigma thonningii and the associated indigenous knowledge of the local people related to use, management practices, and the threatening factors in the South Omo Zone of southwestern Ethiopia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six Kebeles were purposively selected from two districts of the zone and a total of 84 respondents were sampled, with consideration of gender, age, and wealth status. Data were collected using structured and semi-structured interviews, field observations, and group discussions. Relevant descriptive statistical methods were used to analyze the data. Ethnobotanical knowledge held by informants were computed using Pearson's chi-square test and direct matrix ranking and pair-wise ranking was used to prioritize the uses according to community preferences and the level of the destructiveness of the reported threats. RESULTS: The results showed that P. thonningii provides different functions to people's livelihoods as shade, food, fodder, soil fertility, fuelwood, medicine, rope, multipurpose materials (e.g., Borketa for sitting and head support), huts, beehives, farm implements, chairs, fences, and timber. The indigenous knowledge of local people on the uses of P. thonningii has shown significant (P < 0.05) relationship to age groups (being higher for elderly people). The consumption practice of respondents has significant (P < 0.05) association to the Kebeles, age, and income, with higher value for Hamer, lower aged groups, and low-income families. It provides nutritious animal feed to improve browse intake, survival, and productivity of domestic animals and also improve productivity of farm through amelioration of soil fertility. The status of P. thonningii has been decreasing due to agricultural expansion, collection of the species for firewood, dry fencing, and due to browsing. Respondents' attitude and interest to maintain and conserve the species has shown a significant (P< 0.05) association to gender, wealth, and level of education. Higher interest was observed in men than women, mid-high wealth class households than low income, and people with education than uneducated. CONCLUSIONS: This study attempted to provide information on the multiple uses of P. thonningii. Given the key roles of P. thonningii for the people and the environment to improve household food security, agricultural productivity, and income sources and the threats to it, the need to protect it in natural forests and woodlands and optimize its uses in agroforestry systems is high. Serious consideration of this species will ultimately allow households to reap the benefits expected to accrue from it in the arid and semi-arid areas of Ethiopia where plants of this nature are usually rare.

Correction: Genetic diversity of Ethiopian cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) accessions as revealed by morphological traits and SSR markers.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245120.].

Genetic diversity of Ethiopian cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) accessions as revealed by morphological traits and SSR markers.

Cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) is an exotic species from tropical America that is widely cultivated in Ethiopia for its edible cormels and leaves. There is a dearth of information on the genetic diversity of Ethiopian cocoyam. In order to evaluate and select cocoyam germplasm for breeding and conservation, genetic diversity of 100 Ethiopian cocoyam accessions (65 green- and 35 purple- cocoyam) were analyzed using 29 morphological traits (16 qualitative and 13 quantitative) and 12 SSR loci. Two classes of qualitative traits were observed. ANOVA revealed significant variation in 11 (84.6%) of the 13 studied quantitative traits. The SSR marker analysis showed high genetic diversity. A total of 36 alleles were detected with a range of 2 to 5 (average of 3.273) alleles per locus. The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) values across populations were 0.503 and 0.443, respectively. The analysis of molecular variance showed that the variation among populations, among individuals within populations, and within individuals explained 14%, 18%, and 68% of the total variation, respectively. Cluster analysis grouped the accessions irrespective of the collection sites. A dendrogram based on Nei's standard genetic distance grouped the green cocoyam accessions together while the purple cocoyam accessions occupied a separate position within the dendrogram. Significant variation in quantitative traits and the high level of genetic diversity revealed by the SSR markers suggest that diverse cocoyam accessions, probably with multiple lineage, were introduced multiple times, through multiple routes and probably by multiple agents, an hypothesis that needs futher testing and analyis. The crop, therefore, needs more research efforts commensurate with its economic and social values than it has been accorded thus far. Further study is recommended to clarify the taxonomic status of Ethiopian cocoyam accesions and to trace their evolutionary relationships with Xanthosoma species elsewhere.

Medicinal plant use practice in four ethnic communities (Gurage, Mareqo, Qebena, and Silti), south central Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Ethnic groups throughout the world have developed their own cultures expressed in the form of customs, taboos, and traditional healthcare systems. Traditional medicine system is one of the widespread cultures known throughout the world which is very much tied to cultural practices of the community or ethnic group. Medicinal plant treasure found in Gurage and Silti zones remained poorly characterized and understood. Therefore, this study was conducted in four ethnic groups: three from Gurage zone (Gurage, Qebena, and Mareqo) and one from Silti zone (Silti) which have lived in close proximity and contact for many centuries in the respective zones. In the present study, unique and shared cultural elements in connection to traditional herbal medicine were examined through investigation of the diversity of medicinal plants. Moreover, attempts have been made to determine similarities among the society in the medicinal plants they have used in general and in medicinal plant species considered culturally most important. METHODS: In a study that involved 320 randomly sampled informants, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation were used and qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Descriptive statistics, rank order priority (ROP), informant consensus factor, Jaccard similarity coefficient, and clustering were used for data analysis. RESULTS: A total of 244 medicinal plant species and a fungal species used to treat human and/or livestock ailments were documented. The number of plants (80 plants, 33 %) with ROP value greater than 50% were considerably fewer than that of plants with ROP < 50% (164, 67 %). Jaccard similarity index and clustering analysis for all cited plants, among the respective studied districts, indicated that grouping generally followed the existing ethnic origin. On the contrary, clustering based on culturally important medicinal plant species (80 plant species, score ROP ≥ 50%) showed the influence of proximity and geographical orientation rather than ethnic relation. CONCLUSIONS: Culturally, most important plants (80 spp.) are widely used and best shared with nearby communities and this could imply current (new) knowledge being practiced in the communities. This knowledge must be documented and better utilized in a modern way including modernized use of traditional medicinal plants.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Sheka Zone of Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional State, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: People's classification, management, and use of plants represent attempt to attracting people from different academic disciplines. Many countries use traditional medicine for their primary healthcare system. Medicinal plants have been important components of healthcare systems since the time immemorial. The objective of this research was to document and analyze traditional medicinal plants used by the Sheka people and associated ethnobotanical knowledge. METHODS: Data was collected by administering pre-prepared semi-structured interview items to 414 informants. Market surveys, group discussion, and guided field walk were used. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics; determination of informant consensus factor, fidelity level, as well as ranking and scoring. RESULTS: A total of 266 plant species belonging to 192 genera and 74 families were identified. About 204 (77%) of the medicinal plants were used to treat human health problems. Only ten (4%) were used to treat livestock health problems and 52 (19%) of them were used to treat both human and livestock health problems. Croton macrostachyus, Prunus africana, Peperomia retusa, Lobelia giberroa, and Celosia schweinfurthiana were found to be high ranking medicinal plants against gastrointestinal problems based on simple preference ranking. CONCLUSION: Very high number of medicinal plant species recorded from the study area indicates that vegetation of Sheka is reservoir of medicinal plants. Hence, the area needs attention for medicinal plant conservation priorities. Plant parts used as medicines also play vital role in the entire medicinal plant life cycle. Therefore, it is useful to consider harvesting impacts. Except well-experienced traditional healers, people of the study area use the medicinal plants haphazardly. There may be high risk of being victims of dosage and improper usage. High ranking medicinal plants are candidates for further phytochemical profiling, drug research, and development.

Inter- and intraspecific diversity of food legumes among households and communities in Ethiopia.

Smallholders throughout sub-Saharan Africa produce legume crops as sources of food, fodder, and cash income, as well as to improve soil fertility. Ethiopian farmers have developed diverse legume varieties that enable adaptation to changing agroecological and sociocultural conditions. However, over the past several decades, as farm sizes declined and extension services promoted new varieties developed by plant breeders, changes in legume diversity have not been monitored. Based on interviews with smallholder farmers (n = 1296), we investigated the status of inter- and intraspecific legume diversity in major production areas of Ethiopia for five food legumes: common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), field pea (Pisum sativum L.), faba bean (Vicia faba L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.). Legume species richness increased with altitude, relative household wealth, and land area planted to legumes. The highest numbers of varieties were found for common bean, followed by field pea, faba bean, groundnut and fenugreek. The average number of varieties planted per household was low (ranging from 1 to 2) and often much lower than the number reported in the same community or zone, which ranged from 2 to 18. For three out of the five species, the number of varieties significantly increased with total land area planted to legumes. Most varieties were rare, planted by less than 1/3 of farmers; however, informants accurately named varieties planted by others in the same community, demonstrating awareness of legume diversity at the community level. Given that the ability to plant multiple legume varieties is limited by land size, policies need to strengthen community-level conservation based on the diverse interests and needs of individual households.

Plants Used as Anticancer Agents in the Ethiopian Traditional Medical Practices: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: This systematic review aimed at examining the use patterns of Ethiopian anticancer traditional medicinal plants (MPs) in view of recommending further validation studies. METHODS: The information was retrieved from PubMed according to the PRISMA guideline. The electronic library of Addis Ababa University and relevant church-based religious books were also inspected for additional data. RESULTS: From 34 studies meeting specific inclusion/exclusion criteria, 119 anticancer MP species distributed in 98 genera and 57 families were recorded. Fabaceae (10.92 %) and Euphorbiaceae (10.08 %) were the most widely used families. Plumbago zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae) was the most frequently used anticancer MP species. Shrubs (42.02 %) and herbs (35.29 %) were dominant growth forms. About 89.08 % of the MPs were collected from wild habitats. Leaves (33.73 %) and roots (27.11 %) were the most frequently harvested parts. The most favored routes were dermal (33.33 %) and oral (29.25 %). About 87.07 % preparations were made from fresh plant materials. Breast cancer and skin cancer were treated with 14 % and 10.76 % of anticancer MPs, respectively. CONCLUSION: The review showed that anticancer MPs are widely used across the regions of Ethiopia. Most of the MPs are not scientifically experimented and yet are at a higher vulnerability to loss mainly by human activities. Calling for conservation measures, we recommend experimental validation of the frequently used anticancer MPs. This augments global anticancer drug researches.

Medicinal plants used by traditional healers to treat malignancies and other human ailments in Dalle District, Sidama Zone, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Medicinal plants (MPs) used by traditional healers (THs) were investigated in Megera and adjacent subdistricts (kebeles) of Dalle District, Sidama Zone, southern Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to identify and record MPs and their traditional uses in the treatment of various human ailments with emphasis on malignancies and other most frequently reported diseases. METHODS: Traditional medicinal knowledge held by 20 THs was investigated following standard ethnobotanical approaches. Guided field walk, free listing, rigorous individual interviews with extended discussions, and local market surveys were employed to obtain information. Preference rankings, paired comparisons, use value (UV) index, frequency of citation (FC), fidelity level (FL), and informant consensus factor (ICF) matrices were engaged to identify MPs used to treat malignancies and the other most prevalent human ailments. RESULTS: Seventy-one MP species belonging to 63 genera and 46 families, used to treat 39 human ailments, were recorded. A high proportion of the species recovered was shrubs (35.2%); while 64.7% were retrieved from the wild habitat. Leaves were the main part of the MPs used (42.9%), followed by fruits/seeds (13%); all preparations were made from fresh materials and about 27.9% involved boiling. The frequent route of delivery was oral (77.9%), followed by dermal (17.6%). About 40.8% of the MPs were used for treating two or more ailments. About 19.7% of the MPs were used to treat malignancies (ICF = 0.86) among which the plant species Sideroxylon oxyacanthum was the most frequently used (FL = 70%). The species Podocarpus falcatus and Hagenia abyssinica were preferred to treat jaundice and deworm in helminthiases, respectively. CONCLUSION: The study area is very rich in plant biodiversity, and the herbal medicine is an integral part of the traditional healthcare system. The MPs are exposed to various destructive anthropogenic activities, and this situation calls for integrated conservation measures. Furthermore, the rich ethnomedicinal knowledge held by the Sidama community at large and TM practitioners, in particular, needs an in-depth study and documentation. Investigations of the MPs with high ICF, FL, and UVs to malignancies, jaundice, and helminthiases could possibly contribute to future drug development efforts.

Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Burji District, Segan Area Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: An ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants was conducted in Burji District, Segan Area Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to identify and document wild edible plants and the associated ethnobotanical knowledge of the local people. METHODS: Relevant ethnobotanical data focused on wild edible plants were collected using guided field walk, semi-structured interview, and direct field observation. Informant consensus method and group discussion were conducted for crosschecking and verification of the information. Both descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotanical methods were used for data analysis. RESULTS: We documented 46 species distributed in 37 genera and 29 families based on local claims of use as food. Local users collect most of these plants from the wild. The common plant families that encompass more number of wild edible plant species were Anacardiaceae (five species) followed by Boraginaceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae which contributed three species each. CONCLUSION: The study showed the existence of a number of wild edible plants which mitigate food insecurity situations during problematic times that the people of the area face occasionally. Informants stated that wild growing edible plants are under threat due to increased anthropogenic pressure and disturbed climatic conditions. This calls for urgent and collaborative actions to keep the balance between edible plants availability in the wild and their utilization by the community. Furthermore, the study attempted to prioritize very important wild edible plants as perceived by the local people for possible domestication and/or sustainable utilization.

The Status of Ethnobotanical Knowledge of Medicinal Plants and the Impacts of Resettlement in Delanta, Northwestern Wello, Northern Ethiopia.

The present study was conducted in Delanta (Ethiopia) to examine the use of medicinal plants and investigate the impacts of the 1984/85 resettlement program on the local people's knowledge on herbal medicine and its uses. The research was conducted with 72 informants in six study sites through semistructured interviews, group discussion, and market survey. In this study, 133 species belonging to 116 genera and 57 families were documented. These plants were mentioned for uses in the treatment of about 76 human and livestock ailments. The family Asteraceae was represented by the highest number with 14 species. Herbs accounted for 52.6% of the total species and leaves (32.6%) were the most frequently used parts. The analysis showed that the resettlement program has both positive and negative impacts on nature rehabilitation and local knowledge along with many human induced threats. Most of the plant knowledge is held by traditional healers and permanent residents. The people's preference for some medicinal plants gave indications of continuity of the ethnomedicinal information among the inhabitants. The findings inform that efforts need to be directed to in situ conservation in two of the plant community types which could protect a good proportion (about 50%) of the medicinal plant species.